Indian history ยท Kings and empires ยท Delhi Sultanate
Alauddin Khalji (1296โ1316): Market Control, Revenue Reforms, Defence against the Mongols and the Deccan Campaigns of Malik Kafur
Alauddin Khalji was the most powerful sultan of Delhi before the Mughals. He defeated repeated Mongol invasions, extended the Sultanate to Gujarat, Rajasthan and the far south, and introduced price controls and revenue reforms that historians still debate. This guide explains his rise, wars and economic measures, with the points most commonly asked in exams.
Alauddin Khalji at a glance
| Detail | Fact |
|---|---|
| Dynasty | Khalji (1290โ1320) |
| Reign | 1296โ1316 |
| Predecessor | His uncle and father-in-law Jalaluddin Khalji, whom he had killed |
| New city | Siri, the second city of Delhi |
| Famous general | Malik Kafur |
| Court poet | Amir Khusrau |
| Chronicler of his reforms | Ziauddin Barani (Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi) |
| Buildings | Alai Darwaza (1311), Hauz-i-Alai (Hauz Khas), Siri fort, unfinished Alai Minar |
Rise to power
The Khalji revolution of 1290 ended the rule of the Mamluk (Slave) dynasty when Jalaluddin Firoz Khalji became sultan. His nephew and son-in-law Ali Gurshasp (Alauddin) was made governor of Kara.
In 1296, Alauddin led a daring raid on Devagiri, capital of the Yadavas of the Deccan โ the first Turkish expedition south of the Vindhyas โ and returned with enormous wealth. He lured Jalaluddin to Kara and had him murdered in 1296, then used the Devagiri treasure to win over nobles and soldiers in Delhi and crown himself sultan.
Defence against the Mongols
The Chagatai Mongols of Central Asia invaded several times between 1297 and 1306.
- His generals Ulugh Khan and Zafar Khan defeated them at Jalandhar (1298) and Kili (1299), where Zafar Khan was killed.
- In 1303, the Mongols under Targhi besieged Delhi while the main army was away at Chittor; Alauddin held out in a fortified camp and built the Siri fort afterwards.
- Later Mongol armies were crushed at Amroha (1305) and on the Ravi (1306).
He strengthened frontier forts, kept a large standing army and appointed strong governors such as Ghazi Malik (later Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq) in Dipalpur.
Conquests in the north and west
| Year | Campaign |
|---|---|
| 1299 | Gujarat (Vaghela king Karna); the eunuch slave Malik Kafur was captured and later rose to command; Somnath temple attacked |
| 1301 | Ranthambhore, defended by Hammiradeva Chauhan, captured after a long siege |
| 1303 | Chittor captured from Rana Ratan Singh; renamed Khizrabad after his son |
| 1305 | Malwa, Ujjain, Mandu, Dhar and Chanderi |
| 1308โ11 | Siwana and Jalor in Marwar |
The legend of Rani Padmini of Chittor comes from Malik Muhammad Jayasi's Padmavat (1540), written over two centuries later; contemporary sources do not mention her, and historians treat the story as literary.
Malik Kafur's southern campaigns
Alauddin did not annex the far south; he sought tribute and treasure.
- Devagiri (1307โ08) โ the Yadava king Ramachandra submitted and became a loyal ally.
- Warangal (1309โ10) โ the Kakatiya ruler Prataparudra II paid tribute; tradition says the Koh-i-Noor diamond was among the treasure.
- Dwarasamudra (1311) โ the Hoysala king Ballala III submitted.
- Madurai (1311) โ Malik Kafur raided the Pandya kingdom, reaching close to Rameswaram.
Administrative and economic reforms
Controlling the nobles
To prevent rebellions, Alauddin issued four ordinances: confiscated grants of land, set up an efficient spy system, banned liquor in Delhi and forbade nobles from holding parties or marrying without permission.
Land revenue
- Revenue in the Doab was fixed at half (50%) of the produce, based on measurement of land (biswa as the standard unit).
- Taxes on houses (ghari) and grazing (charai) were added.
- The privileges of village intermediaries โ khuts, muqaddams and chaudhuris โ were cut, so they paid the same rates as peasants.
- An official, Sharaf Qai, supervised revenue; a separate department, Diwan-i-Mustakhraj, recovered arrears.
Market control
To pay a large army without raising salaries, Alauddin fixed the prices of grain, cloth, horses, cattle and slaves in Delhi.
| Measure | Detail |
|---|---|
| Separate markets | Mandi for grain; Sarai-i-Adl for cloth and costly goods; markets for horses, cattle and slaves |
| Officials | Shahna-i-Mandi (market superintendent), Diwan-i-Riyasat (head of market department) |
| Supply | Revenue in grain from the Doab stored in royal granaries; merchants registered |
| Enforcement | Spies (barids, munhiyans); harsh punishment for short weighing |
The army
- A large standing army paid in cash, not land.
- Dagh โ branding of horses โ and huliya (chehra) โ a descriptive roll of each soldier โ to stop fraud at musters.
Buildings and culture
- The Alai Darwaza (1311), the southern gateway of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutb complex, shows the first true arches and dome in India built on scientific principles.
- Hauz-i-Alai (Hauz Khas) reservoir.
- Amir Khusrau, the "Parrot of India", wrote Khazain-ul-Futuh on Alauddin's conquests.
End of his reign
In his last years Alauddin fell ill and relied heavily on Malik Kafur. After his death in 1316, Kafur briefly ruled, the Khalji line weakened and in 1320 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq founded the Tughlaq dynasty.
Exam traps
- Market reforms and dagh/huliya โ Alauddin Khalji; the token currency โ Muhammad bin Tughlaq.
- Siri was built by Alauddin; Tughlaqabad by Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq.
- Land revenue was half the produce in the Doab.
- Padmavat was written by Jayasi in 1540, not by a contemporary of Alauddin.
Key points to remember
- Seized throne 1296 after Devagiri raid; killed Jalaluddin.
- Repelled Mongols; built Siri.
- Conquered Gujarat (1299), Ranthambhore (1301), Chittor (1303), Malwa.
- Malik Kafur โ Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra, Madurai.
- Price control, Sarai-i-Adl, Shahna-i-Mandi; revenue 50%; dagh, huliya.
Practice questions
Q1. Which Delhi Sultan introduced market control and fixed prices of goods?
- (a) Iltutmish
- (b) Balban
- (c) Alauddin Khalji
- (d) Firoz Shah Tughlaq
Show answer
Answer: (c) Alauddin Khalji โ Alauddin Khalji controlled prices in Delhi to support a large army.
Q2. The 'dagh' system introduced by Alauddin Khalji refers to:
- (a) Measurement of land
- (b) Branding of horses
- (c) Spy reports
- (d) Tax on houses
Show answer
Answer: (b) Branding of horses โ Dagh was the branding of horses to prevent fraud.
Q3. The Sarai-i-Adl under Alauddin Khalji was a market for:
- (a) Grain
- (b) Horses
- (c) Cloth and costly goods
- (d) Slaves
Show answer
Answer: (c) Cloth and costly goods โ Sarai-i-Adl dealt in cloth and luxury items.
Q4. Alauddin Khalji's general who led campaigns to south India was:
- (a) Zafar Khan
- (b) Ulugh Khan
- (c) Malik Kafur
- (d) Ghazi Malik
Show answer
Answer: (c) Malik Kafur โ Malik Kafur led expeditions to Devagiri, Warangal, Dwarasamudra and Madurai.
Q5. The Alai Darwaza is located in the:
- (a) Red Fort complex
- (b) Qutb complex
- (c) Tughlaqabad fort
- (d) Purana Qila
Show answer
Answer: (b) Qutb complex โ It is the southern gateway of the Quwwat-ul-Islam mosque in the Qutb complex.
Q6. Who wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi, the main source on Alauddin's market reforms?
- (a) Amir Khusrau
- (b) Ziauddin Barani
- (c) Ibn Battuta
- (d) Minhaj-us-Siraj
Show answer
Answer: (b) Ziauddin Barani โ Ziauddin Barani wrote Tarikh-i-Firoz Shahi.
Frequently asked questions
Why did Alauddin control market prices?
To maintain a large standing army against the Mongols on fixed cash salaries without the soldiers falling into poverty.
What was the second city of Delhi?
Siri, built by Alauddin Khalji after the Mongol siege of 1303.
Did Alauddin annex south India?
No. Malik Kafur's campaigns brought tribute and treasure; most southern kings were left in place as tributaries.
Official sources
- NCERT history textbooks
- Archaeological Survey of India โ Qutb Minar and its Monuments
- Encyclopaedia Britannica โ Alauddin Khalji
Rules, dates and figures can change. Always check the latest official notification or government release before relying on a detail.