Indian history · British era · Independence
The Road to Independence (1945–1947): Wavell Plan, INA Trials, RIN Mutiny, Cabinet Mission, Direct Action Day, Attlee's Statement, Mountbatten Plan and the Indian Independence Act — Exam Notes
Between the end of the Second World War and August 1947, events moved at great speed: elections, mutinies, failed negotiations, communal violence and, finally, independence with partition. This guide arranges the key plans, dates and people of 1945–47 that examiners ask about, ending with the integration of the princely states.
Wavell Plan and the Simla Conference (1945)
Viceroy Lord Wavell proposed reconstituting his Executive Council with Indian members — all except the Viceroy and the Commander-in-Chief — with equal representation for caste Hindus and Muslims.
At the Simla Conference (June–July 1945), Jinnah insisted that the Muslim League alone should nominate all Muslim members. The Congress, whose president was Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, rejected this, and the conference failed.
Elections of 1945–46
After the war, the new Labour government of Clement Attlee (from July 1945) held elections:
- the Congress won almost all general seats and formed governments in eight provinces;
- the Muslim League won almost all Muslim seats, strengthening its claim to speak for Muslims;
- in Punjab, a Unionist–Congress–Akali coalition under Khizr Hayat Khan Tiwana took office.
The upsurge of 1945–46
- INA trials at the Red Fort (November 1945 onwards) of Prem Kumar Sahgal, Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon and Shah Nawaz Khan sparked protests across communities.
- RIN mutiny: on 18 February 1946, ratings of the Royal Indian Navy on HMIS Talwar in Bombay went on strike against poor food and racial treatment; the strike spread to 78 ships and 20 shore establishments, with support from Karachi to Calcutta. Sardar Patel and Jinnah persuaded the sailors to surrender.
- Strikes in the Royal Indian Air Force and among police and workers.
These events convinced the British that Indian forces could no longer be relied upon.
The Cabinet Mission (1946)
Three British cabinet ministers came to India in March 1946: Lord Pethick-Lawrence (Secretary of State, leader), Sir Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander.
The Cabinet Mission Plan (16 May 1946)
| Feature | Detail |
|---|---|
| Pakistan | Rejected a separate, sovereign Pakistan |
| Union | A weak Union of India with defence, foreign affairs and communications; residuary powers with provinces |
| Grouping of provinces | Group A (Hindu-majority: Madras, Bombay, UP, Bihar, CP, Orissa); Group B (Punjab, NWFP, Sindh); Group C (Bengal, Assam) |
| Constituent Assembly | 389 members — 292 from provinces (elected by provincial assemblies), 93 from princely states, 4 from Chief Commissioners' provinces |
| Interim government | To be formed immediately |
Both parties initially accepted the plan, but disputes arose over whether grouping was compulsory. Nehru's statement in July 1946 that the Congress would be free to change the plan in the Constituent Assembly led the League to withdraw its acceptance.
Direct Action Day (16 August 1946)
The Muslim League called for Direct Action "to achieve Pakistan". On 16 August 1946, Calcutta saw terrible communal killings ("Great Calcutta Killings"), followed by violence in Noakhali (East Bengal), Bihar and Garhmukteshwar (UP). Gandhi walked through Noakhali's villages to restore peace.
The Interim Government (2 September 1946)
An Interim Government headed by Jawaharlal Nehru (as Vice-President of the Viceroy's Executive Council) took office on 2 September 1946. The Muslim League joined in October 1946, with Liaquat Ali Khan as Finance Member, but obstructed its work.
| Member | Portfolio |
|---|---|
| Jawaharlal Nehru | External Affairs and Commonwealth Relations |
| Vallabhbhai Patel | Home, Information and Broadcasting |
| Rajendra Prasad | Food and Agriculture |
| Baldev Singh | Defence |
| Liaquat Ali Khan | Finance |
| C. Rajagopalachari | Education |
The Constituent Assembly
- First met on 9 December 1946; Dr Sachchidananda Sinha was temporary chairman.
- Dr Rajendra Prasad was elected permanent president on 11 December 1946.
- Objectives Resolution moved by Nehru on 13 December 1946, adopted on 22 January 1947.
- The Muslim League boycotted it.
Attlee's statement (20 February 1947)
British PM Attlee announced that Britain would leave India by June 1948, transferring power either to a central government or to provinces if no agreement was reached. Lord Mountbatten was appointed Viceroy, replacing Wavell, and took office on 24 March 1947.
The Mountbatten Plan (3 June 1947)
Mountbatten concluded that partition was unavoidable. His plan, announced on 3 June 1947, provided:
- Partition of British India into India and Pakistan;
- the Punjab and Bengal legislative assemblies to vote, in separate sections for Muslim-majority and other districts, on partition of their provinces;
- a referendum in the NWFP and in Sylhet (Assam);
- Sindh to decide through its assembly;
- Boundary Commissions for Punjab and Bengal, chaired by Sir Cyril Radcliffe;
- princely states free to join either dominion or remain independent;
- the date of transfer advanced to 15 August 1947.
The Congress and the League accepted the plan.
The Indian Independence Act, 1947
Passed by the British Parliament and given royal assent on 18 July 1947:
- created two dominions, India and Pakistan, from 15 August 1947;
- abolished the post of Secretary of State for India;
- ended British paramountcy over princely states;
- made each Constituent Assembly sovereign, also acting as its dominion's legislature;
- each dominion to have a Governor-General — Mountbatten for India, Jinnah for Pakistan.
Independence: at midnight on 14–15 August 1947, Nehru gave his "Tryst with Destiny" speech in the Constituent Assembly. The Radcliffe awards were published on 17 August 1947. Partition was followed by mass migration and violence in which hundreds of thousands died.
Integration of the princely states
There were about 560 princely states. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, as Minister of States, and his secretary V. P. Menon persuaded most rulers to sign the Instrument of Accession (covering defence, external affairs and communications) before 15 August 1947. Three needed special handling:
| State | How it joined |
|---|---|
| Junagadh | Nawab acceded to Pakistan; after popular protest and Indian pressure, a plebiscite in February 1948 went overwhelmingly for India |
| Hyderabad | Nizam sought independence; after a standstill agreement and violence by the Razakars, India's Operation Polo (13–17 September 1948) led to accession |
| Jammu and Kashmir | Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of Accession on 26 October 1947 after a tribal invasion from Pakistan |
31 October, Patel's birth anniversary, is observed as Rashtriya Ekta Diwas (National Unity Day); the Statue of Unity in Gujarat honours him.
Key points to remember
- Simla Conference 1945 failed (Jinnah's demand on Muslim nominees).
- RIN mutiny 18 February 1946 (HMIS Talwar, Bombay); INA trials.
- Cabinet Mission (Pethick-Lawrence, Cripps, Alexander); plan 16 May 1946; groups A, B, C; Constituent Assembly 389.
- Direct Action Day 16 August 1946; Interim Government 2 September 1946.
- Attlee's statement 20 February 1947; Mountbatten Plan 3 June 1947; Act royal assent 18 July 1947.
- Junagadh (plebiscite), Hyderabad (Operation Polo), Kashmir (accession 26 October 1947).
Practice questions
Q1. The Cabinet Mission was led by:
- (a) Stafford Cripps
- (b) Lord Pethick-Lawrence
- (c) A. V. Alexander
- (d) Lord Wavell
Show answer
Answer: (b) Lord Pethick-Lawrence — Secretary of State Lord Pethick-Lawrence led the mission.
Q2. The RIN mutiny began in February 1946 on:
- (a) HMIS Talwar
- (b) HMIS Delhi
- (c) HMIS Hindustan
- (d) HMIS Kirpan
Show answer
Answer: (a) HMIS Talwar — Ratings of HMIS Talwar in Bombay began the strike on 18 February 1946.
Q3. The Interim Government was formed on:
- (a) 16 August 1946
- (b) 2 September 1946
- (c) 9 December 1946
- (d) 20 February 1947
Show answer
Answer: (b) 2 September 1946 — It took office on 2 September 1946 with Nehru at its head.
Q4. Under the Cabinet Mission Plan, the Constituent Assembly was to have how many members?
- (a) 299
- (b) 389
- (c) 292
- (d) 500
Show answer
Answer: (b) 389 — 389 members — 292 from provinces, 93 from princely states and 4 from Chief Commissioners' provinces.
Q5. The Mountbatten Plan was announced on:
- (a) 20 February 1947
- (b) 3 June 1947
- (c) 18 July 1947
- (d) 15 August 1947
Show answer
Answer: (b) 3 June 1947 — It was announced on 3 June 1947.
Q6. Hyderabad was integrated into India through:
- (a) A plebiscite
- (b) Operation Polo
- (c) The Instrument of Accession signed in 1947
- (d) A Supreme Court order
Show answer
Answer: (b) Operation Polo — Operation Polo in September 1948 led to Hyderabad's accession.
Frequently asked questions
Why did the Cabinet Mission Plan fail?
Congress and the League disagreed over whether grouping of provinces was compulsory, and the League withdrew its acceptance after Nehru's July 1946 statement.
When did the Constituent Assembly first meet?
On 9 December 1946, with Dr Sachchidananda Sinha as temporary chairman.
Who was the first Governor-General of independent India?
Lord Mountbatten, until June 1948; he was succeeded by C. Rajagopalachari.
Official sources
- National Archives of India (Abhilekh Patal)
- Constituent Assembly Debates — Lok Sabha Secretariat
- Encyclopaedia Britannica — Partition of India
Rules, dates and figures can change. Always check the latest official notification or government release before relying on a detail.