Punjab GK · Ancient history

Ancient Punjab: From Harappa and the Sapta Sindhu to Porus, Taxila and the Hindu Shahis — Exam Notes

Long before the Gurus and the Sikh kingdoms, the land of five rivers was home to one of the world's earliest cities, the setting of the Rig Veda, the battlefield where Porus faced Alexander, and the seat of Taxila's famous centre of learning. This guide arranges ancient Punjab's history into clear periods and highlights the names and dates exams ask about.

By PunjabExams Editorial Team · Updated 29 October 2026 · 6 min read · How we prepare guides

The name and the land

"Punjab" comes from Persian panj (five) and ab (water) — the land of five rivers: the Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, all tributaries of the Indus. In older Sanskrit texts the wider region is called Sapta Sindhu (land of seven rivers, counting the Indus and the Saraswati). Greek writers called it Pentapotamia.

Harappan (Indus Valley) civilisation

The Harappan civilisation flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE in its mature phase.

• Harappa, on the old bank of the Ravi in present-day Sahiwal district (Pakistan), was the first site excavated, by Daya Ram Sahni in 1921. The whole civilisation is named after it.
• Rupnagar (Ropar) on the Sutlej was the first Harappan site excavated in independent India, by Y. D. Sharma in the 1950s.
• Sanghol (Fatehgarh Sahib district) has Harappan levels and is even better known for Kushan-period sculptures and a Buddhist stupa.
• Other sites in and near Punjab include Kotla Nihang Khan (near Ropar), Dher Majra, Bara and Rakhigarhi (in Haryana, one of the largest Harappan sites).

Harappan towns had planned streets, baked-brick houses, covered drains, standard weights and seals. Their decline is linked by scholars to shifting rivers and changing climate.

The Vedic age

The Rig Veda, India's oldest text, was composed largely in the region of the Sapta Sindhu. Its hymns name Punjab's rivers:

The famous Battle of the Ten Kings (Dasarajna) of the Rig Veda was fought on the bank of the Parushni (Ravi), where King Sudas of the Bharatas defeated a confederacy of ten tribes.

In the later Vedic and epic period, the region was divided among janapadas such as Gandhara (capital Taxila), Madra (capital Sakala, modern Sialkot) and Kekaya.

Persians and Greeks

Achaemenid Persia

Around 518 BCE, the Persian emperor Darius I brought Gandhara and the Indus region into his empire as a province (satrapy).

Alexander and Porus (326 BCE)

• Ambhi, the ruler of Taxila, submitted to Alexander and helped him.
• Porus (Puru), whose kingdom lay between the Jhelum and the Chenab, resisted. At the Battle of the Hydaspes (Jhelum) in 326 BCE, Alexander won after a hard fight. Greek sources say that when asked how he wished to be treated, Porus replied, "as a king". Alexander restored his kingdom.
• Alexander's army refused to march beyond the Beas (Hyphasis), and he turned back.

Mauryas and Taxila

• Chandragupta Maurya, guided by Chanakya (Kautilya), drove out the Greek governors and founded the Mauryan Empire around 321 BCE.
• Taxila (Takshashila) was a renowned centre of learning; tradition links Chanakya and the physician Jivaka with it. During his father's reign, Ashoka was sent to Taxila to put down a revolt. Taxila is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (in Pakistan).

Indo-Greeks, Shakas and Kushans

• Menander (Milinda), the best-known Indo-Greek king, ruled from Sakala (Sialkot). The Pali text Milindapanha records his dialogue with the Buddhist monk Nagasena.
• The Kushans ruled a large empire from Purushapura (Peshawar). Under Kanishka, the Gandhara school of art flourished, blending Indian and Greco-Roman styles. Sanghol in Punjab has yielded fine Kushan sculptures.

Guptas, Hunas and Harsha

• The Guptas held influence in Punjab, but in the late 5th and early 6th centuries the Hunas invaded. Toramana and his son Mihirakula, who ruled from Sakala, were notorious for destroying Buddhist monasteries. Mihirakula was defeated by Yashodharman of Malwa.
• In the 7th century, Harshavardhana of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, originally from Thanesar (Haryana), ruled much of north India. The Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang passed through Punjab during his reign.

The Hindu Shahis (c. 9th century–1026)

The Hindu Shahi dynasty ruled from Udabhandapura (Hund/Waihind) on the Indus and later controlled much of Punjab.

• Jayapala was defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni near Peshawar in 1001 CE.
• His son Anandapala was defeated around 1008–09.
• By 1026, the Shahi kingdom had disappeared, opening Punjab to the Ghaznavids — the starting point of the medieval period (see the related guide on medieval Punjab).

Timeline of ancient Punjab

Key points to remember

• Harappa excavated in 1921 by Daya Ram Sahni; Ropar — first Harappan site excavated after Independence.
• Vedic names: Vitasta, Asikni, Parushni, Vipasha, Shutudri.
• Hydaspes, 326 BCE: Alexander vs Porus; Ambhi of Taxila submitted.
• Menander — Sakala; Kanishka — Gandhara art; Mihirakula — Huna ruler.
• Hindu Shahis — Jayapala defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1001.

Practice questions

1. Q1. Harappa was first excavated in 1921 by:

   • (a) R. D. Banerji
   • (b) Daya Ram Sahni
   • (c) John Marshall
   • (d) Y. D. Sharma
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) Daya Ram Sahni — Daya Ram Sahni excavated Harappa in 1921.

2. Q2. The Vedic name of the river Ravi is:

   • (a) Vitasta
   • (b) Asikni
   • (c) Parushni
   • (d) Shutudri
   Show answer

   Answer: (c) Parushni — Parushni is the Ravi; Vitasta is the Jhelum, Asikni the Chenab, Shutudri the Sutlej.

3. Q3. The first Harappan site excavated in independent India was:

   • (a) Lothal
   • (b) Kalibangan
   • (c) Rupnagar (Ropar)
   • (d) Rakhigarhi
   Show answer

   Answer: (c) Rupnagar (Ropar) — Y. D. Sharma excavated Ropar in the 1950s.

4. Q4. Alexander fought Porus in 326 BCE on the bank of the:

   • (a) Jhelum (Hydaspes)
   • (b) Beas (Hyphasis)
   • (c) Ravi
   • (d) Sutlej
   Show answer

   Answer: (a) Jhelum (Hydaspes) — The Battle of the Hydaspes was fought on the Jhelum.

5. Q5. The Indo-Greek king Menander ruled from:

   • (a) Taxila
   • (b) Sakala (Sialkot)
   • (c) Purushapura
   • (d) Thanesar
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) Sakala (Sialkot) — Menander's capital was Sakala, modern Sialkot.

6. Q6. The Hindu Shahi ruler defeated by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1001 CE was:

   • (a) Anandapala
   • (b) Jayapala
   • (c) Trilochanapala
   • (d) Mihirakula
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) Jayapala — Jayapala was defeated near Peshawar in 1001 CE.

Frequently asked questions

Which Punjab site is famous for Kushan sculptures?

Sanghol in Fatehgarh Sahib district, which has yielded Kushan-period sculptures and a Buddhist stupa.

Where did Alexander's army refuse to go further?

At the Beas (Hyphasis), after which Alexander turned back.

What was Taxila famous for?

It was an ancient centre of learning in Gandhara, linked by tradition with Chanakya and the physician Jivaka.

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