Indian history · Kings and empires

Ashoka the Great (c. 268–232 BCE): Kalinga War, Dhamma, Rock and Pillar Edicts, and the Lion Capital — Exam Notes

Ashoka is the only ruler in Indian history whose own words, carved on rocks and pillars across the subcontinent, tell us how he thought. After a bloody war in Kalinga he turned to a policy of moral conduct he called Dhamma, and his Lion Capital at Sarnath became the national emblem of the Republic of India. This guide covers the questions examiners ask most about him.

By PunjabExams Editorial Team · Updated 29 October 2026 · 6 min read · How we prepare guides

Life at a glance

Early career

Before becoming emperor, Ashoka served as a provincial governor, according to Buddhist texts at Ujjain, and was sent to Taxila to suppress a revolt. Buddhist sources say there was a struggle for the throne after Bindusara's death, which explains the gap of about four years between his accession and his coronation.

The Kalinga War (c. 261 BCE)

Kalinga (coastal Odisha) was a rich, independent kingdom controlling sea and land routes to the south. About eight years after his coronation, Ashoka conquered it.

His own Major Rock Edict XIII describes the cost: 150,000 people were deported, 100,000 killed, and many more died afterwards. Ashoka expressed deep remorse — an extraordinary admission for a victorious king. From then on he declared that the only true conquest was conquest by Dhamma (dhammavijaya), not by arms.

Two separate edicts, the Kalinga Edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada in Odisha, set out how the newly conquered people were to be governed with fairness. Notably, Rock Edict XIII is not inscribed in Kalinga itself.

What was Ashoka's Dhamma?

Dhamma (Prakrit for Sanskrit dharma) was not simply Buddhism. It was a code of ethical conduct meant for all his subjects, whatever their faith. Its main points:

• obedience to parents and elders, respect for teachers;
• generosity to Brahmins, shramanas (ascetics), the poor and slaves;
• non-violence towards living beings — restrictions on animal sacrifice and on killing certain animals; the royal kitchen cut its meat use;
• tolerance: Rock Edict XII asks people to honour other sects and avoid praising their own while condemning others;
• moderation in spending and saving;
• welfare works: wells, rest-houses, shade trees along roads, and medical treatment for humans and animals (Rock Edict II).

Officials of Dhamma

Ashoka created a new class of officers called Dhamma-mahamattas (Rock Edict V) to spread Dhamma and look after the welfare of different communities. Officials called rajukas and yuktas were asked to tour regularly.

The edicts

Ashoka's inscriptions are found at more than thirty places from Afghanistan to Karnataka.

Scripts and languages

• Most edicts are in Prakrit written in the Brahmi script.
• In the north-west (Shahbazgarhi, Mansehra) the script is Kharosthi.
• At Kandahar (Afghanistan) there are versions in Greek and Aramaic.

Decipherment

James Prinsep, an official of the East India Company mint, deciphered the Brahmi script in 1837. For decades the "Devanampiya Piyadasi" of the inscriptions was not linked with the Ashoka of Buddhist texts; the Maski edict, found in 1915, settled the question by naming him.

Ashoka and Buddhism

• He became a lay Buddhist and made pilgrimages to sites linked with the Buddha, including Lumbini and Bodh Gaya.
• The Third Buddhist Council was held at Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa, during his reign, to purify the Sangha.
• He sent missions abroad. His son Mahendra (Mahinda) and daughter Sanghamitra took Buddhism to Sri Lanka; Sanghamitra is said to have carried a sapling of the Bodhi tree.
• His edicts mention five Greek kings, including Antiochus II of Syria and Ptolemy II of Egypt, to whose lands he sent envoys.
• Buddhist tradition credits him with building 84,000 stupas; the core of the Great Stupa at Sanchi dates to his time.

The Lion Capital of Sarnath

The Lion Capital, which crowned an Ashokan pillar at Sarnath, shows four lions standing back to back above an abacus carved with an elephant, a horse, a bull and a lion separated by wheels. The capital is made of polished Chunar sandstone.

• It was adopted as the national emblem of India on 26 January 1950, with the motto "Satyameva Jayate" from the Mundaka Upanishad.
• The 24-spoked wheel (Ashoka Chakra) appears in the centre of the national flag.
• The original capital is in the Sarnath Museum.

Decline after Ashoka

Ashoka's successors were weaker, and the empire broke up within fifty years. The last ruler, Brihadratha, was killed by Pushyamitra Shunga around 185 BCE.

Exam traps

• Rock Edict XIII — Kalinga War; Rock Edict XII — religious tolerance; Rock Edict II — medical care.
• Maski and Gujarra edicts carry the name "Ashoka".
• Kharosthi is written right to left and used in the north-west; Brahmi is left to right.
• The Lion Capital was adopted on 26 January 1950.

Key points to remember

• Grandson of Chandragupta Maurya; titles Devanampiya Piyadasi.
• Kalinga War c. 261 BCE → Dhamma; Dhamma-mahamattas.
• 14 Major Rock Edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts; deciphered by James Prinsep (1837).
• Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra; Mahendra and Sanghamitra to Sri Lanka.
• Sarnath Lion Capital = national emblem.

Practice questions

1. Q1. Which Major Rock Edict of Ashoka describes the Kalinga War?

   • (a) Rock Edict II
   • (b) Rock Edict V
   • (c) Rock Edict XII
   • (d) Rock Edict XIII
   Show answer

   Answer: (d) Rock Edict XIII — Rock Edict XIII records the deaths and Ashoka's remorse.

2. Q2. The Brahmi script was deciphered in 1837 by:

   • (a) Alexander Cunningham
   • (b) James Prinsep
   • (c) William Jones
   • (d) John Marshall
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) James Prinsep — James Prinsep deciphered Brahmi in 1837.

3. Q3. Which edict mentions the name 'Ashoka' directly?

   • (a) Girnar
   • (b) Maski
   • (c) Kalsi
   • (d) Dhauli
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) Maski — The Maski minor rock edict names him, settling his identity.

4. Q4. The Third Buddhist Council during Ashoka's reign was presided over by:

   • (a) Mahakassapa
   • (b) Moggaliputta Tissa
   • (c) Vasumitra
   • (d) Upali
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) Moggaliputta Tissa — It was held at Pataliputra under Moggaliputta Tissa.

5. Q5. Ashoka's edicts in the north-west were written in which script?

   • (a) Brahmi
   • (b) Kharosthi
   • (c) Devanagari
   • (d) Sharada
   Show answer

   Answer: (b) Kharosthi — Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra edicts use Kharosthi.

6. Q6. Ashoka's Lion Capital was adopted as India's national emblem on:

   • (a) 15 August 1947
   • (b) 26 November 1949
   • (c) 26 January 1950
   • (d) 2 October 1950
   Show answer

   Answer: (c) 26 January 1950 — It was adopted on 26 January 1950.

Frequently asked questions

Was Ashoka's Dhamma the same as Buddhism?

No. It was a code of ethical conduct for people of all faiths — respect, tolerance, non-violence and welfare — though shaped by his Buddhist beliefs.

Who carried Buddhism to Sri Lanka?

Ashoka's son Mahendra and daughter Sanghamitra.

Where is the original Lion Capital kept?

In the Sarnath Museum, near Varanasi.

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